Gilt Decorative Art

Beautiful custom framed antique herbarium floral specimens, collected 1911-12. Handwritten Latin scientific in lovely script. Specimens include buttercup/St. Anthony's Turnip, bird's...

Beautiful custom framed antique Swedish herbarium floral specimens, collected circa 1911. Handwritten names in lovely Latin script. Specimens include zigzag clover, milkwort, and mor...

Beautiful custom framed antique herbarium floral specimens, collected 1911-1913. Handwritten Latin scientific in lovely script. Specimens include chive flowers, nettle, and cowslip. ...

Salvator Rosa last 17th century giltwood frame. Internal measurements cm 24 x 32.5 Pure example of Italian Salvator Rosa gild wood frame of 17th century. "Salvator Rosa" is the famo...

This captivating bas-relief framed decorative art, meticulously sculpted in resin, captures the essence of the Baroque style. An elegant couple, romantically engage in a musical inte...

A Large and Impressive Early 20th Century Oil on Canvas "Madonna and Child" After Bartolomé Esteban Murillo (Spanish, 1618-1682) depicting a seated Virgin Mary with a baby Jesus Chri...

Oil on board Venetian Canal Scene looking towards the mouth of The Grand Canal with Della Salute to one side . Typical in the Grand Tour style of 18th ,19th and 20th centuries ..

A Captivating Vision: "Clown Avec Un Oiseau" by Charles Levier. This striking oil on canvas painting, titled "Clown Avec Un Oiseau" (Clown with a Bird) in French, is a captivating...

This is a super rare opportunity to acquire one of these beautifully reduced versions of 'bathing ladies' the original being located in the famous Paris ''HOTEL des Collectionneur. T...

Untitled mid-century modern Italian impressionist oil on board painting of a village or town square landscape. The painting features beautifully detailed b...

This exquisite 19th-century French framed collection of cameos presents a stunning display of classical artistry. The composition features an array of intricately detailed terracotta...

A fine and large 19th century oil on canvas after Bartolomé Esteban Murrillo's (Spanish, 1617-1682) "Beggar Boys Playing Dice" (The original work by Murillo was painted in 1675). The impressive artwork depicts two young boys playing dice while another eats a piece of fruit as his dog watches on., within an ornate gildwood and gesso frame bearing a label from the faming company Bigelow & Jordan. The original work by Murillo is currently at the Alte Pinakothek Museum in Munich, Germany. The present work is signed: L. Rüber. Circa: Munich, Late 19th Century. Bartolomé Esteban Murillo (born late December 1617, baptized January 1, 1618 – April 3, 1682) was a Spanish Baroque painter. Although he is best known for his religious works, Murillo also produced a considerable number of paintings of contemporary women and children. These lively, realist portraits of flower girls, street urchins, and beggars constitute an extensive and appealing record of the everyday life of his times. Murillo was born to Gaspar Esteban and María Pérez Murillo. He may have been born in Seville or in Pilas, a smaller Andalusian town. It is clear that he was baptized in Seville in 1618, the youngest son in a family of fourteen. His father was a barber and surgeon. His parents died when Murillo was still very young, and the artist was largely brought up by his aunt and uncle. Murillo began his art studies under Juan del Castillo in Seville. There he became familiar with Flemish painting and the "Treatise on Sacred Images" of Molanus (Ian van der Meulen or Molano). The great commercial importance of Seville at the time ensured that he was subject to influences from other regions. His first works were influenced by Zurbarán, Jusepe de Ribera and Alonzo Cano, and he shared their strongly realist approach. As his painting developed, his more important works evolved towards the polished style that suited the bourgeois and aristocratic tastes of the time, demonstrated especially in his Roman Catholic religious works. In 1642, at the age of 26, he moved to Madrid, where he most likely became familiar with the work of Velázquez, and would have seen the work of Venetian and Flemish masters in the royal collections; the rich colors and softly modeled forms of his subsequent work suggest these influences. In 1645 he returned to Seville and married Beatriz Cabrera y Villalobos, with whom he eventually had eleven children. In that year, he painted eleven canvases for the convent of St. Francisco el Grande in Seville. These works depicting the miracles of Franciscan saints vary between the Zurbaránesque tenebrism of the Ecstasy of St Francis and a softly luminous style (as in Death of St Clare...

A French Directoire period framed painted panel from the late 18th century, with floral motifs. Born in France during the later years of the 18th century, this exquisite decorative p...

This beautifully preserved collection features four 19th century botanical herbier specimens meticulously mounted in a rustic barn wood frame. Each specimen, carefully labeled with s...

John Haanstra (Dutch, b. 1940), signed and dated 1985 on lower right. A charming oil painting, showing a winter landscape. Skaters are enjoying seasonal fun on a frozen canal while others go about their daily activities. A typical Dutch windmill can be seen in the background. Typical Dutch style housing can be seen in the foreground. The sky seems to be laden with more snow, creating the sense of more winter fun...

Charles Joshua Chaplin (French, 1825-1891) 'The Bird's Nest' A very fine and charming Rococo revival style oil on canvas depicting a young girl, dressed in 18th century costume and r...

This is a super rare opportunity to acquire one of these beautifully reduced versions of the facade bas-relief of the Folies-Bergeres cabaret by Maurice Picaud aka Pico (1900-1977). ...

Imperial Majesty: 19th-Century Ming Dynasty Emperor Silk Painting This exquisite silk painting, dating back to the 19th century, depicts a majestic Ming Dynasty emperor in all his regalia. Hand-painted with meticulous detail and presented in a beautiful frame, this artwork showcases the rich tradition of Chinese silk painting. The vibrant colors and intricate brushwork capture the emperor's imperial stature and the grandeur of the Ming Dynasty. The painting's subject matter and artistic style make it a captivating addition to any collection. Dimensions: Framed measurements: 24 3/4" W x 31" H x 1 1/4" D Condition: Very good antique condition. This Antique Chinese Imperial Emperor Ancestral Painting...

18th century Italian gold gilded tabernacle door adorned with naturally forming baroque pearls. This door once belonged on a tabernacle which housed the eucharist in a church. In the...

One of a kind gilt iron sunflower wall mirror / wall sculpture, France, 1950s. This spectacular wall mirror has an eye-catching flower shaped design with Handcrafted in gilt iron. ...

Pair of antique golden friezes with olive branches. They are from the French Empire period and are perfect. ref. O/7147.

Faux bamboo foliage folding screen, wrought iron, gold leaf, Spain, 1960s Eye-catching gilt metal three-panel folding screen or room divider with faux bamboo ironstructure and foliag...

Italian 19th century oil on canvas titled "The Music Professor" depicting a mid-19th century music-room scene of an elder man, the music professor, holding his violin, hat and umbrel...

This one-of-a-kind antique Italian Empire Period folding screen is a masterpiece of early 19th-century craftsmanship, dating most likely from 1801 during the Republic of Lucca. Pain...

A rare and evocative example of Spanish Colonial art from the Cusco School, this 17th-century oil on wood panel captures the iconic biblical scene of Sain...

Dimensions - (Frame) H: 16 1/2 in W: 11 1/2 in D: 1 in (Plaque) H: 12 1/4 in W: 7 1/4 in This exquisite Antique Italian Early 20th Century Pietra Dura Inlaid Marble Plaque is a stu...

Impressive three tier gilt iron starburst wall mounted sculpture in the Brutalist style. Likely created by William Bowie, American circa 1970, though unsigned. Truly a living piece of sculpture, a Nova exploding perpetually on your wall. Check out the cool pic of Baba Ram Dass...

This beautifully handcrafted wall piece pays tribute to the splendor of Andalusian architecture, echoing the intricate arches and decorative flourishes of the Alhambra in Granada. Made in early 20th-century Spain, it captures the spirit of Islamic Revival style with striking detail and artisan precision. At its center are three classic horseshoe arches, richly adorned with arabesques and supported by slender columns topped with finely worked capitals. A palette of soft reds, blues, and golds brings depth and warmth, further elevated by a rich burgundy velvet background. Surrounding the scene is a remarkable inlaid wooden frame, featuring delicate geometric patterns and flowing Arabic calligraphy — hallmarks of Neo-Mudejar design. This is not only a decorative object but a conversation piece, a rare combination of cultural history, architectural beauty, and fine craftsmanship. There are signs of restorations and some chipping to the plasterwork, mostly along the edges, but nothing that takes away from the overall beauty or structural integrity of the piece. Whether you're a lover of Islamic art, architectural miniatures, or simply looking for something rich in history and charm to add to your space, this piece brings timeless character and a story with it. A rare find with true soul. The large frame may have some minor losses and but this antique art work...

Ferdinand Wagner II (German, 1847-1927) A very fine and charming triptych group of three oil on canvas laid on board titled "An Allegory to Spring" each panel depicting different playful and joyous scenes of putti and a cherubs reminiscent of spring, love and peace. The center panel depicting a seated putto, crowned with flowers, a standing putto behind him holding a sack of arrows and a seated cherub facing him next to a watchful peace dove on top resting of a flower bouquet. The left panel depicting a seated putto next to a standing putto with a freshly harvested apple. The right side panel depicting a standing cherub holding a fig branches with leaves. All three-in-one panels within individually carved giltwood frames. All panels signed at the lower left: Ferd. Wagner, circa 1890. Ferdinand Wagner II (German, 1847-1927) was the son of Passau Ferdinand Wagner Senior, a teacher at a vocational art school who began training him professionally at a young age. After traveling to Italy in 1867-1868, he continued with his art studies at The Munich Academy of Arts led by Peter Von Cornelius and Julius Schnorr...

Large size, great shape and excellent condition antique coat rack. If you are looking for a stylish and practical coat rack in the Arts & Crafts style then this period piece could be perfect for you. It is truly stylish, entirely original and, as you can see in our images, it is in very good condition. This quality antique is handcrafted from solid oak and it comes with the inlaid, hand painted and glazed tiles. These tiles are extra special, because on top of the glazing are unique, gilt and stylized flower motifs. This luxurious and colorful coat rack also comes with all the original and aesthetically beautiful hooks...

French Figurative Oil Painting by Charles Levier. Titled "Une femme devant la mer", this masterful work of a well-known listed French artist whose work can be compared to Bernard Buf...

Louis Vuitton Print from Paris, France framed in a vintage wooden Gold Leaf frame. The artwork features iconic Louis Vuitton words and letters artistically arranged. Similar piece ca...

19th century American framed still life depictions of fruit, set of 10. Group of 10 small framed still life depictions of fruit, to include: watercolor theorem depicting apples on a...

A very fine and Large Italian 18th-19th century oval-shaped oil on canvas titled "The Triumph of Venice" After the original work by Paolo Veronese (Venice, 1528-1588). The original of this painting hangs in the Palazzo Ducale, Venice. The 'Ricci' coloration suggests a late 17th-early 18th century date. In 1715 Charles de la Fosse advised Ricci to paint only "Veroneses and no more Riccis", Venice, circa 1800. Measures: Height: 45 1/4 inches (115 cm). Width: 29 inches (73.7 cm). Frame height: 58 1/4 inches (147.9 cm). Frame width: 43 1/4 inches (109.9 cm). Frame depth: 5 1/4 (13.3 cm). Provenance: Royal Academy of Scotland. Paolo Veronese (Born 1528, Verona, Republic of Venice - died April 9, 1588, Venice) was an Italian painter of the Renaissance in Venice, famous for paintings such as The Wedding at...

Indian 19th century group of fine seven oval hand - painted miniature portraits of revered Mughal rulers and their royal wives. All individually set in narrow likely gilt Silver fram...

A rare find this 18th century Spanish altar front, original gilt on chestnut, hand painted, highly decorative wall art, different, genuine, love t...

Antique framed British (or French?) painting of Mary, Queen of Scots (1542 -1587 AD ). Wearing Crown and purpur Mantle, holding a Scepter.Unsigned.Presumably dates to late 1600 - e...

Louis Vuitton Print from Paris, France framed in a vintage European gold leaf frame. Artwork features the iconic Louis Vuitton suitcases artistically formed in the shape of the Eiffe...

A large French 19th century oil on canvas (laid down on a masonite) "Les progrès de l'amour dans le cœur d'une jeune fille" The Progress of Love: The Lover Crowned, after Jean-Honoré...

Pietro Gabrini (Italian, 1856-1926) a very fine and large oil on canvas "Three Singing Italian Beauties on The Road" depicting three cheerful Village young maidens walking through a ...

Pair of 1700s Italian Wall Decorative Panels, a pair of blue laquer vertical frieze dating back to late 18th century, with a stunning  hand-carved gilded relief  candelabra decoratio...

A set of three antique Dutch engravings and etchings from the 18th Century. This set has been professionally framed in newer gilt frames and feature acid-free paper to protect these...

An antique rectangular mirror inscribed in a Pinewwood frame, gilded, the pediment formed by an openwork flower basket spilling sinuous gar...

Wonderful Italian Empire original giltwood frame. Early 19th century. Internal measurements cm 37.5 x 45.5. Every item of our Gallery, upon request, is accompanied by a certific...

The object in the image is an antique punch paper or lacework cross, likely from the 1870s, framed in an antique wooden frame, richly detailed, traditional American craftsmanship. C...

A fine Italian 19th century oil painting on canvas "La Madonna della Seggiola" after Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino 1483-1520) The circular canvas depicting a seated Madonna holding an infant Jesus Christ next to a child Saint John the Baptist, all within a massive carved gilt wood and gesso frame (all high quality gilt is original) which is identical to the frame on Raphael's original artwork. This painting is a 19th Century copy of Raphael's Madonna della Seggiola painted in 1514 and currently exhibited and part of the permanent collection at the Palazzo Pitti, Galleria Palatina, Florence, Italy. The bodies of the Virgin, Christ, and the boy Baptist fill the whole picture. The tender, natural looking embrace of the Mother and Child, and the harmonious grouping of the figures in the round, have made this one of Raphael's most popular Madonnas. The isolated chair leg is reminiscent of papal furniture, which has led to the assumption that Leo X himself commissioned the painting, circa 1890-1900. Subject: Religious painting Measures: Canvas height: 29 1/4 inches (74.3 cm) Canvas width: 29 1/4 inches (74.3 cm) Painting diameter: 28 1/4 inches (71.8 cm) Frame height: 57 7/8 inches (147 cm) Frame width: 45 1/2 inches (115.6 cm) Frame depth: 5 1/8 inches (13 cm).   Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (Italian, March 28 or April 6, 1483 - April 6, 1520), known as Raphael, was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. His work is admired for its clarity of form, ease of composition, and visual achievement of the Neoplatonic ideal of human grandeur. Together with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, he forms the traditional trinity of great masters of that period. Raphael was enormously productive, running an unusually large workshop and, despite his death at 37, leaving a large body of work. Many of his works are found in the Vatican Palace, where the frescoed Raphael Rooms were the central, and the largest, work of his career. The best known work is The School of Athens in the Vatican Stanza della Segnatura. After his early years in Rome much of his work was executed by his workshop from his drawings, with considerable loss of quality. He was extremely influential in his lifetime, though outside Rome his work was mostly known from his collaborative printmaking. After his death, the influence of his great rival Michelangelo was more widespread until the 18th and 19th centuries, when Raphael's more serene and harmonious qualities were again regarded as the highest models. His career falls naturally into three phases and three styles, first described by Giorgio Vasari: his early years in Umbria, then a period of about four years (1504–1508) absorbing the artistic traditions of Florence, followed by his last hectic and triumphant twelve years in Rome, working for two Popes and their close associates. Raphael was born in the small but artistically significant central Italian city of Urbino in the Marche region, where his father Giovanni Santi was court painter to the Duke. The reputation of the court had been established by Federico III da Montefeltro, a highly successful condottiere who had been created Duke of Urbino by the Pope - Urbino formed part of the Papal States - and who died the year before Raphael was born. The emphasis of Federico's court was rather more literary than artistic, but Giovanni Santi was a poet of sorts as well as a painter, and had written a rhymed chronicle of the life of Federico, and both wrote the texts and produced the decor for masque-like court entertainments. His poem to Federico shows him as keen to show awareness of the most advanced North Italian painters, and Early Netherlandish artists as well. In the very small court of Urbino he was probably more integrated into the central circle of the ruling family than most court painters. Federico was succeeded by his son Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, who married Elisabetta Gonzaga, daughter of the ruler of Mantua, the most brilliant of the smaller Italian courts for both music and the visual arts. Under them, the court continued as a centre for literary culture. Growing up in the circle of this small court gave Raphael the excellent manners and social skills stressed by Vasari. Court life in Urbino at just after this period was to become set as the model of the virtues of the Italian humanist court through Baldassare Castiglione's depiction of it in his classic work The Book of the Courtier, published in 1528. Castiglione moved to Urbino in 1504, when Raphael was no longer based there but frequently visited, and they became good friends. He became close to other regular visitors to the court: Pietro Bibbiena and Pietro Bembo, both later cardinals, were already becoming well known as writers, and would be in Rome during Raphael's period there. Raphael mixed easily in the highest circles throughout his life, one of the factors that tended to give a misleading impression of effortlessness to his career. He did not receive a full humanistic education however; it is unclear how easily he read Latin. Early Life and Works His mother Màgia died in 1491 when Raphael was eight, followed on August 1, 1494 by his father, who had already remarried. Raphael was thus orphaned at eleven; his formal guardian became his only paternal uncle Bartolomeo, a priest, who subsequently engaged in litigation with his stepmother. He probably continued to live with his stepmother when not staying as an apprentice with a master. He had already shown talent, according to Vasari, who says that Raphael had been "a great help to his father". A self-portrait drawing from his teenage years shows his precocity. His father's workshop continued and, probably together with his stepmother, Raphael evidently played a part in managing it from a very early age. In Urbino, he came into contact with the works of Paolo Uccello, previously the court painter (d. 1475), and Luca Signorelli, who until 1498 was based in nearby Città di Castello. According to Vasari, his father placed him in the workshop of the Umbrian master Pietro Perugino as an apprentice "despite the tears of his mother". The evidence of an apprenticeship comes only from Vasari and another source, and has been disputed—eight was very early for an apprenticeship to begin. An alternative theory is that he received at least some training from Timoteo Viti, who acted as court painter in Urbino from 1495.Most modern historians agree that Raphael at least worked as an assistant to Perugino from around 1500; the influence of Perugino on Raphael's early work is very clear: "probably no other pupil of genius has ever absorbed so much of his master's teaching as Raphael did", according to Wölfflin. Vasari wrote that it was impossible to distinguish between their hands at this period, but many modern art historians claim to do better and detect his hand in specific areas of works by Perugino or his workshop. Apart from stylistic closeness, their techniques are very similar as well, for example having paint applied thickly, using an oil varnish medium, in shadows and darker garments, but very thinly on flesh areas. An excess of resin in the varnish often causes cracking of areas of paint in the works of both masters. The Perugino workshop was active in both Perugia and Florence, perhaps maintaining two permanent branches. Raphael is described as a "master", that is to say fully trained, in December 1500. His first documented work was the Baronci altarpiece for the church of Saint Nicholas of Tolentino in Città di Castello, a town halfway between Perugia and Urbino. Evangelista da Pian di Meleto, who had worked for his father, was also named in the commission. It was commissioned in 1500 and finished in 1501; now only some cut sections and a preparatory drawing remain. In the following years he painted works for other churches there, including the Mond Crucifixion (about 1503) and the Brera Wedding of the Virgin (1504), and for Perugia, such as the Oddi Altarpiece. He very probably also visited Florence in this period. These are large works, some in fresco, where Raphael confidently marshals his compositions in the somewhat static style of Perugino. He also painted many small and exquisite cabinet paintings in these years, probably mostly for the connoisseurs in the Urbino court, like the Three Graces and St. Michael, and he began to paint Madonnas and portraits. In 1502 he went to Siena at the invitation of another pupil of Perugino, Pinturicchio, "being a friend of Raphael and knowing him to be a draughtsman of the highest quality" to help with the cartoons, and very likely the designs, for a fresco series in the Piccolomini Library in Siena Cathedral. He was evidently already much in demand even at this early stage in his career. Influence of Florence Raphael led a "nomadic" life, working in various centres in Northern Italy, but spent a good deal of time in Florence, perhaps from about 1504. Although there is traditional reference to a "Florentine period...

A late 18th Century, antique Swedish Gustavian rectangular wall mirror with its original mirrored glass and blue color paint, made of hand crafted gilded Pinewood, in good condition....

A fine pair of Continental 19th century porcelain plaques each depicting George Washington, the first President of the United States and his wife Martha Washington within an ornate V...

Painting of a stylized oriental camel by Fabbriziani and Calandra from the 1970-ies Italy. On satin in a kind of silkscreen in limited edition, wooden frame gilded. The black camel i...

An antique Portuguese wall relief or sopra porte made of Pinewood, in good condition. The Baroque wall panel was hand carved and is richly ornate wi...

This charming set features framed silhouettes of a young woman and young man from the 19th Century on reversed glass. Wonderful addition to add to an existing collection on a wall or...

Framed 'Mimoides Pausanias,' 'Dione Juno,' and 'Haetera Piera' butterflies with coordinating 18th century Italian fragments. The butterflies all share beautiful color and pattern com...

A charming later Victorian textured canvas applied to wood, study of Thomas Gainsborough's three-quarter portrait of the Welsh actress Sarah Siddons, presented in a period Ebonized c...

Crafted in France in the 1800s, this high quality gilt bronze wall clock has elements in the style of Louis XVI. The white clock face with blue numbers re...

For your consideration, a framed art of lattice crown. Hand carved and finished with Gilt. Wood frame in red and gilt color. Stamp from the frame maker on the back. China circa the 1...

A fine quality clock and barometer set by Carcany and Robin, after models on exhibition in the Louvre Museum, Paris. In the Louis XVI manner, of banjo form, the cases being in cr...

Wonderful oval stipple engraving after James Gillray Showing the meeting of Colonel Gardiner with his daughters before the Battle of Prestonpans. Set against the background of sterl...

18th century Italian hand-carved and gilded tabernacle door adorned with baroque pearls. This door once belonged on a tabernacle which served the eucharist in a church. It has a heav...

Orientalist Painting Wall Art Arab Market Scene Dutch G. Huijsser Antique Frame. Very nice oil on cardboard by Gerard Huijsser, Dutch painter, depicting a gathering of people in a or...

A Fine Italian 19th Century Oil Painting on Canvas "La Madonna della Seggiola" after Raphael (Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino 1483-1520). The circular painted canvas depicting a seated Madonna holding an infant Jesus Christ next to a child Saint John the Baptist, all within a massive carved two-tone gilt wood, gilt-patinated and gesso frame, which is identical to the frame on Raphael's original artwork. This painting is a 19th Century copy of Raphael's Madonna della Seggiola painted in 1514 and currently exhibited and part of the permanent collection at the Palazzo Pitti, Galleria Palatina, Florence, Italy. The bodies of the Virgin, Christ, and the boy Baptist fill the whole picture. The tender, natural looking embrace of the Mother and Child, and the harmonious grouping of the figures in the round, have made this one of Raphael's most popular Madonnas. The isolated chair leg is reminiscent of papal furniture, which has led to the assumption that Leo X himself commissioned the painting. Circa: 1890-1900. Subject: Religious painting Painting diameter: 28 inches (71.1 cm) Frame height: 55 1/8 inches (140 cm) Frame width: 46 inches (116.8 cm) Frame depth: 5 1/8 inches (13 cm) Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (Italian, March 28 or April 6, 1483 - April 6, 1520), known as Raphael, was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. His work is admired for its clarity of form, ease of composition, and visual achievement of the Neoplatonic ideal of human grandeur. Together with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, he forms the traditional trinity of great masters of that period. Raphael was enormously productive, running an unusually large workshop and, despite his death at 37, leaving a large body of work. Many of his works are found in the Vatican Palace, where the frescoed Raphael Rooms were the central, and the largest, work of his career. The best known work is The School of Athens in the Vatican Stanza della Segnatura. After his early years in Rome much of his work was executed by his workshop from his drawings, with considerable loss of quality. He was extremely influential in his lifetime, though outside Rome his work was mostly known from his collaborative printmaking. After his death, the influence of his great rival Michelangelo was more widespread until the 18th and 19th centuries, when Raphael's more serene and harmonious qualities were again regarded as the highest models. His career falls naturally into three phases and three styles, first described by Giorgio Vasari: his early years in Umbria, then a period of about four years (1504–1508) absorbing the artistic traditions of Florence, followed by his last hectic and triumphant twelve years in Rome, working for two Popes and their close associates. Raphael was born in the small but artistically significant central Italian city of Urbino in the Marche region, where his father Giovanni Santi was court painter to the Duke. The reputation of the court had been established by Federico III da Montefeltro, a highly successful condottiere who had been created Duke of Urbino by the Pope - Urbino formed part of the Papal States - and who died the year before Raphael was born. The emphasis of Federico's court was rather more literary than artistic, but Giovanni Santi was a poet of sorts as well as a painter, and had written a rhymed chronicle of the life of Federico, and both wrote the texts and produced the decor for masque-like court entertainments. His poem to Federico shows him as keen to show awareness of the most advanced North Italian painters, and Early Netherlandish artists as well. In the very small court of Urbino he was probably more integrated into the central circle of the ruling family than most court painters. Federico was succeeded by his son Guidobaldo da Montefeltro, who married Elisabetta Gonzaga, daughter of the ruler of Mantua, the most brilliant of the smaller Italian courts for both music and the visual arts. Under them, the court continued as a centre for literary culture. Growing up in the circle of this small court gave Raphael the excellent manners and social skills stressed by Vasari. Court life in Urbino at just after this period was to become set as the model of the virtues of the Italian humanist court through Baldassare Castiglione's depiction of it in his classic work The Book of the Courtier, published in 1528. Castiglione moved to Urbino in 1504, when Raphael was no longer based there but frequently visited, and they became good friends. He became close to other regular visitors to the court: Pietro Bibbiena and Pietro Bembo, both later cardinals, were already becoming well known as writers, and would be in Rome during Raphael's period there. Raphael mixed easily in the highest circles throughout his life, one of the factors that tended to give a misleading impression of effortlessness to his career. He did not receive a full humanistic education however; it is unclear how easily he read Latin. Early Life and Works His mother Màgia died in 1491 when Raphael was eight, followed on August 1, 1494 by his father, who had already remarried. Raphael was thus orphaned at eleven; his formal guardian became his only paternal uncle Bartolomeo, a priest, who subsequently engaged in litigation with his stepmother. He probably continued to live with his stepmother when not staying as an apprentice with a master. He had already shown talent, according to Vasari, who says that Raphael had been "a great help to his father". A self-portrait drawing from his teenage years shows his precocity. His father's workshop continued and, probably together with his stepmother, Raphael evidently played a part in managing it from a very early age. In Urbino, he came into contact with the works of Paolo Uccello, previously the court painter (d. 1475), and Luca Signorelli, who until 1498 was based in nearby Città di Castello. According to Vasari, his father placed him in the workshop of the Umbrian master Pietro Perugino as an apprentice "despite the tears of his mother". The evidence of an apprenticeship comes only from Vasari and another source, and has been disputed—eight was very early for an apprenticeship to begin. An alternative theory is that he received at least some training from Timoteo Viti, who acted as court painter in Urbino from 1495.Most modern historians agree that Raphael at least worked as an assistant to Perugino from around 1500; the influence of Perugino on Raphael's early work is very clear: "probably no other pupil of genius has ever absorbed so much of his master's teaching as Raphael did", according to Wölfflin. Vasari wrote that it was impossible to distinguish between their hands at this period, but many modern art historians claim to do better and detect his hand in specific areas of works by Perugino or his workshop. Apart from stylistic closeness, their techniques are very similar as well, for example having paint applied thickly, using an oil varnish medium, in shadows and darker garments, but very thinly on flesh areas. An excess of resin in the varnish often causes cracking of areas of paint in the works of both masters. The Perugino workshop was active in both Perugia and Florence, perhaps maintaining two permanent branches. Raphael is described as a "master", that is to say fully trained, in December 1500. His first documented work was the Baronci altarpiece for the church of Saint Nicholas of Tolentino in Città di Castello, a town halfway between Perugia and Urbino. Evangelista da Pian di Meleto, who had worked for his father, was also named in the commission. It was commissioned in 1500 and finished in 1501; now only some cut sections and a preparatory drawing remain. In the following years he painted works for other churches there, including the Mond Crucifixion (about 1503) and the Brera Wedding of the Virgin (1504), and for Perugia, such as the Oddi Altarpiece. He very probably also visited Florence in this period. These are large works, some in fresco, where Raphael confidently marshals his compositions in the somewhat static style of Perugino. He also painted many small and exquisite cabinet paintings in these years, probably mostly for the connoisseurs in the Urbino court, like the Three Graces and St. Michael, and he began to paint Madonnas and portraits. In 1502 he went to Siena at the invitation of another pupil of Perugino, Pinturicchio, "being a friend of Raphael and knowing him to be a draughtsman of the highest quality" to help with the cartoons, and very likely the designs, for a fresco series in the Piccolomini Library in Siena Cathedral. He was evidently already much in demand even at this early stage in his career. Influence of Florence Raphael led a "nomadic" life, working in various centres in Northern Italy, but spent a good deal of time in Florence, perhaps from about 1504. Although there is traditional reference to a "Florentine period...